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Abstract

A state-of-the-art experimental setup for soft X-ray photo- and Auger-electron spectroscopy from liquid phase has been built for operation at the synchrotron-light facility BESSY II, Berlin. The experimental station is named SOL³, which is derived from solid, solution, and solar, and refers to the aim of studying solid–liquid interfaces, optionally irradiated by photons in the solar spectrum. SOL³ is equipped with a high-transmission hemispherical electron analyzer for detecting electrons emitted from small molecular aggregates, nanoparticles, or biochemical molecules and their components in (aqueous) solutions, either in vacuum or in an ambient pressure environment. In addition to conventional energy-resolved electron detection, SOL³ enables detection of electron angular distributions by the combination of a ±11° acceptance angle of the electron analyzer and a rotation of the analyzer in the polarization plane of the incoming synchrotron-light beam. The present manuscript describes the technical features of SOL³, and we also report the very first measurements of soft-X-ray photoemission spectra from a liquid microjet of neat liquid water and of TiO₂-nanoparticle aqueous solution obtained with this new setup, highlighting the necessity for state-of-the-art electron detection.